Older age is the main risk factor for cancer. This largely reflects cell DNA damage accumulating over time. Damage can result from biological processes or from exposure to risk factors.
This page covers other factors with the best evidence of an association with cancer risk; this list is not exhaustive.
See our other pages for general information about cancer, or ways to reduce your risk.
View our latest cancer statistics including key stats, in-depth explanations and raw data on cancer incidence, mortality, survival, risk, and diagnosis and treatment.
View full A-Z cancer statisticsSee information and explanations on terminology used for statistics and reporting of cancer, and the methods used to calculate some of our statistics.
Go to local cancer statistics - search profiles by area, constituency or health board in the UK.
Go to devolved nations overview for an overview of Wales, Scotland or Northern Ireland.
You are welcome to reuse this Cancer Research UK content for your own work. Credit us as authors by referencing Cancer Research UK as the primary source. Suggested styles are:
Web content: Cancer Research UK, full URL of the page, Accessed [month] [year].
Publications: Cancer Research UK ([year of publication]), Name of publication, Cancer Research UK.
Graphics (when reused unaltered): Credit: Cancer Research UK.
Graphics (when recreated with differences): Based on a graphic created by Cancer Research UK.
When Cancer Research UK material is used for commercial reasons, we encourage a donation to our life-saving research. Send a cheque payable to Cancer Research UK to: Cancer Research UK, 2 Redman Place, London, E20 1JQ.
Donate onlineStay up to date by signing up to our cancer statistics and intelligence newsletter.
We are grateful to the many organisations across the UK which collect, analyse, and share the data which we use, and to the patients and public who consent for their data to be used.
Find out more about the sources which are essential for our statistics
Lifetime risk estimates calculated by the Cancer Intelligence Team at Cancer Research UK 2023.
Estève J, Benhamou E, Raymond L. Statistical methods in cancer research. Volume IV. Descriptive epidemiology. IARC Sci Publ. 1994;(128):1-302.
Brown KF, Rumgay H, Dunlop C, et al. The fraction of cancer attributable to known risk factors in England, Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland, and the UK overall in 2015. British Journal of Cancer.
International Agency for Research on Cancer. List of Classifications by cancer sites with sufficient or limited evidence in humans, Volumes 1 to 122*. Accessed October 2018.
Lauby-Secretan B, Scoccianti C, Loomis D, et al. Body Fatness and Cancer--Viewpoint of the IARC Working Group. N Engl J Med. 2016 Aug 25;375(8):794-8.
World Cancer Research Fund / American Institute for Cancer Research. Continuous Update Project Findings & Reports. Accessed October 2018.
Evans T, Sany O, Pearmain P, Ganesan R, Blann A, Sundar S. Differential trends in the rising incidence of endometrial cancer by type: data from a UK population-based registry from 1994 to 2006. 2011 April 26:104(9):1505-10.
National Cancer Intelligence Network (2013): Outline of Uterine Cancer in the United Kingdom: Incidence, Mortality and Survival.
Allen NE, Key TJ, Dossus L, et al. Endogenous sex hormones and endometrial cancer risk in women in the European Prospective Investigation into cancer and Nutrition (EPIC). Endocr Relat Cancer 2008l; 15(2): 485-97.
Baird DT, Balen A, et al. Health and fertility in World Health Organization group 2 anovulatory women. 2012 Sep-Oct;18(5):586-99.
Grady D, Gebretsadik T, Kerlikowske K, Ernster V, Petitti D. Hormone replacement therapy and endometrial cancer risk: a meta-analysis 1995 Feb;85(2):304-13.
Marjoribanks J, Farquhar C, Roberts H, Lethaby A. Long term hormone therapy for perimenopausal and postmenopausal women. 2012 Jul 11;7:CD004143.
Furness S, Roberts H, Marjoribanks J, Lethaby A. Hormone therapy in postmenopausal women and risk of endometrial hyperplasia. 2012 Aug 15;8:CD000402.
Beral V, Bull D, Reeves G. Endometrial cancer and hormone-replacement therapy in the Million Women Study. Lancet, 2005. 365(9470): 1543-51.
Brinton LA, Felix AS. Menopausal hormone therapy and risk of endometrial cancer. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2014 Jul;142:83-9.
Sjögren LL, Mørch LS, Løkkegaard E. Hormone replacement therapy and the risk of endometrial cancer: A systematic review. Maturitas. 2016 Sep;91:25-35.
Schonfield SJ, Hartge P, Pfeiffer RM et al. An aggregated analysis of hormonal factors and endometrial cancer risk by parity. Cancer. 2013 Apr 1;119(7):1393-401.
Dossus L, Allen N, Kaaks R et al. Reproductive risk factors and endometrial cancer: the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. Int J Cancer. 2010 Jul 15;127(2):442-51.
Setiawan VW, Pike MC, Karageorgi S et al. Age at last birth in relation to risk of endometrial cancer: pooled analysis in the epidemiology of endometrial cancer consortium(link is external). Am J Epidemiol. 2012 Aug 15;176(4):269-78. Epub 2012 Jul 23.
Setiawan VW, Pike MC, Karageorgi S et al. Age at last birth in relation to risk of endometrial cancer: pooled analysis in the epidemiology of endometrial cancer consortium. Am J Epidemiol. 2012 Aug 15;176(4):269-78. Epub 2012 Jul 23.
World Cancer Research Fund / American Institute for Cancer Research. Continuous Update Project Findings & Reports. Accessed May 2017.
Brown KF, Rumgay H, Dunlop C, et al. The fraction of cancer attributable to known risk factors in England, Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland, and the UK overall in 2015. British Journal of Cancer 2018.
Kyrgiou M, Kalliala I, Markozannes G, et al. Adiposity and cancer at major anatomical sites: umbrella review of the literature. BMJ 2017;:j477.
Wang PP, He XY, Wang R, et al. High leptin level is an independent risk factor of endometrial cancer: a meta-analysis. Cell Physiol Biochem 2014;34(5):1477-84.
Esposito K, Chiodini P, Capuano A, Bellastella G, Maiorino MI, Giugliano D. Metabolic syndrome and endometrial cancer: a meta-analysis. Endocrine. 2014 Feb;45(1):28-36.
Barry JA, Azizia MM, Hardiman PJ. Risk of endometrial, ovarian and breast cancer in women with polycystic ovary syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Hum Reprod Update. 2014 Sep-Oct;20(5):748-58.
Palomba S, Falbo A, Zullo F, Orio F Jr. Evidence-based and potential benefits of metformin in the polycystic ovary syndrome: a comprehensive review. Endocr Rev. 2009 Feb;30(1):1-50.
Lee SC, Kaunitz AM, Sanchez-Ramos L, Rhatigan RM. The oncogenic potential of endometrial polyps: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Obstet Gynecol. 2010 Nov;116(5):1197-205.
Starup-Linde J, Karlstad O, Eriksen SA, et al. CARING (CAncer Risk and INsulin analoGues): The Association of Diabetes Mellitus and Cancer Risk with Focus on Possible Determinants- a Systematic Review and a Meta-Analysis. Curr Drug Saf. 2013 Nov 7.
Zhang ZH, Su PY, Hao JH, et al. The role of preexisting diabetes mellitus on incidence and mortality of endometrial cancer: a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Int J Gynecol Cancer. 2013 Feb;23(2):294-303.
Luo J, Beresford S, Chen C, et al. Association between diabetes, diabetes treatment and risk of developing endometrial cancer. Br J Cancer 2014 Sep;111(7):1432-9.
Becker C, Jick SS, Meier CR, et al. Metformin and the risk of endometrial cancer: a case-control analysis. Gynecol Oncol. 2013 Jun;129(3):565-9.
Ferrara A, Lewis JD, Quesenberry CP Jr, et al. Cohort study of pioglitazone and cancer incidence in patients with diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2011 Apr;34(4):923-9.
Voskuil DW, Monninkhof EM, Elias SG, et al. Physical activity and endometrial cancer risk, a systematic review of current evidence. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2007; 16(4): 639-48.
Moore SC, Gierach GL, Schatzkin A, et al. Physical activity, sedentary behaviours, and the prevention of endometrial cancer. Br J Cancer. 2010 Sep 28;103(7):933-8.
Keum N, Ju W, Lee DH, et al. Leisure-time physical activity and endometrial cancer risk: Dose-response meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. Int J Cancer. 2013 Dec 20.
Schmid D, Leitzmann MF. Television viewing and time spent sedentary in relation to cancer risk: a meta-analysis. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2014 Jun 16;106(7). pii: dju098.
Shi Y, Li T, Wang Y, et al. Household physical activity and cancer risk: a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. Sci Rep. 2015. doi: 10.1038/srep14901.
Havrilesky LJ, Gierisch JM, Moorman PG, et al. Oral contraceptive use for the primary prevention of ovarian cancer. Evid Rep Technol Assess (Full Rep). 2013;(212):1-514.
Setiawan VW, Yang HP, Pike MC, et al. Type I and II endometrial cancers: have they different risk factors? J Clin Oncol. 2013 Jul 10;31(20):2607-18.
Mueck AO, Seeger H, Rabe T. Hormonal contraception and risk of endometrial cancer: a systematic review. Endocr Relat Cancer. 2010 Sep 23;17(4):R263-71.
Felix AS, Gaudet MM, La Vecchia C, et al. Intrauterine devices and endometrial cancer risk: a pooled analysis of the Epidemiology of Endometrial Cancer Consortium. Int J Cancer. 2015 Mar 1; 136(5): E410–E422.
Lafranconi A, Micek A, Galvano F, et al. Coffee Decreases the Risk of Endometrial Cancer: A DoseâResponse Meta-Analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies. Nutrients 2017;9(11):1223.