Older age is the main risk factor for cancer. This largely reflects cell DNA damage accumulating over time. Damage can result from biological processes or from exposure to risk factors.
This page covers other factors with the best evidence of an association with cancer risk; this list is not exhaustive.
See our other pages for general information about cancer, or ways to reduce your risk.
View our latest cancer statistics including key stats, in-depth explanations and raw data on cancer incidence, mortality, survival, risk, and diagnosis and treatment.
View full A-Z cancer statisticsSee information and explanations on terminology used for statistics and reporting of cancer, and the methods used to calculate some of our statistics.
Go to local cancer statistics - search profiles by area, constituency or health board in the UK.
Go to devolved nations overview for an overview of Wales, Scotland or Northern Ireland.
You are welcome to reuse this Cancer Research UK content for your own work. Credit us as authors by referencing Cancer Research UK as the primary source. Suggested styles are:
Web content: Cancer Research UK, full URL of the page, Accessed [month] [year].
Publications: Cancer Research UK ([year of publication]), Name of publication, Cancer Research UK.
Graphics (when reused unaltered): Credit: Cancer Research UK.
Graphics (when recreated with differences): Based on a graphic created by Cancer Research UK.
When Cancer Research UK material is used for commercial reasons, we encourage a donation to our life-saving research. Send a cheque payable to Cancer Research UK to: Cancer Research UK, 2 Redman Place, London, E20 1JQ.
Donate onlineStay up to date by signing up to our cancer statistics and intelligence newsletter.
We are grateful to the many organisations across the UK which collect, analyse, and share the data which we use, and to the patients and public who consent for their data to be used.
Find out more about the sources which are essential for our statistics
Lifetime risk estimates calculated by the Cancer Intelligence Team at Cancer Research UK 2023.
Sasieni PD, Shelton J, Ormiston-Smith N, et al. What is the lifetime risk of developing cancer?: The effect of adjusting for multiple primaries. Br J Cancer, 2011.105(3): p.460-5
Brown KF, Rumgay H, Dunlop C, et al. The fraction of cancer attributable to known risk factors in England, Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland, and the UK overall in 2015. British Journal of Cancer 2018.
Lauby-Secretan B, Scoccianti C, Loomis D, et al. Body Fatness and Cancer--Viewpoint of the IARC Working Group. N Engl J Med. 2016 Aug 25;375(8):794-8.
World Cancer Research Fund / American Institute for Cancer Research. Continuous Update Project Findings & Reports. Accessed October 2018.
Kyrgiou M, Kalliala I, Markozannes G, et al. Adiposity and cancer at major anatomical sites: umbrella review of the literature. BMJ 2017;:j477.
Luo J, Margolis KL, Adami HO, et al. Body size, weight cycling, and risk of renal cell carcinoma among postmenopausal women: the Women's Health Initiative (United States). Am J Epidemiol 2007;166:752-9.
Chu A, Heck JE, Ribeiro KB, et al. Wilms' tumour: a systematic review of risk factors and meta-analysis. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 2010;24:449-69.
International Agency for Research on Cancer. List of Classifications by cancer sites with sufficient or limited evidence in humans, Volumes 1 to 122*. Accessed October 2018.
Cumberbatch MG, Rota M, Catto JW,et al. The Role of Tobacco Smoke in Bladder and Kidney Carcinogenesis: A Comparison of Exposures and Meta-analysis of Incidence and Mortality Risks. Eur Urol. 2016 Sep;70(3):458-66.
Hunt JD, van der Hel OL, McMillan GP, et al. Renal cell carcinoma in relation to cigarette smoking: meta-analysis of 24 studies. Int J Cancer 2005; 114:101-8.
Wong G, Staplin N, Emberson J, et al. Chronic kidney disease and the risk of cancer: an individual patient data meta-analysis of 32,057 participants from six prospective studies. BMC Cancer 2016;16(1).
Cheungpasitporn W, Thongprayoon C, O'Corragain OA, et al. The risk of kidney cancer in patients with kidney stones: a systematic review and meta-analysis. QJM 2014. pii: hcu195.
Hidayat K, Du X, Zou S, et al. Blood pressure and kidney cancer risk. Journal of Hypertension 2017;35(7):1333-1344.
Grossman E, Messerli FH, Goldbourt U. Antihypertensive therapy and the risk of malignancies. Eur Heart J 2001;22:1343-52.
Sona M, Myung S, Park K, et al. Type 1 diabetes mellitus and risk of cancer: a meta-analysis of observational studies. Japanese Journal of Clinical Oncology 2018;48(5):426-433.
Karlstad O, Linde JS, Vestergaard P, et al. Use of Insulin and Insulin Analogs and Risk of Cancer- Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies. Curr Drug Saf. 2013 Nov 7.
Colmers IN, Bowker SL, Johnson JA. Thiazolidinedione use and cancer incidence in type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetes Metab 2012;38(6):475-84.
Choueiri TK, Je Y, Cho E. Analgesic use and the risk of kidney cancer: a meta-analysis of epidemiologic studies. Int J Cancer 2014;134(2):384-96.
Bausch B, Jilg C, Gläsker S, et al. Renal cancer in von Hippel-Lindau disease and related syndromes. Nat Rev Nephrol 2013;9(9):529-38.
Clague J, Lin J, Cassidy A, et al. Family history and risk of renal cell carcinoma: results from a case-control study and systematic meta-analysis Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2009;18:801-7.
Liu H, Sundquist J, Hemminki K. Familial renal cell carcinoma from the Swedish Family-Cancer Database. Eur Urol 2011;60:987-93.
